Sunday, 15 April 2018

Elizabeth Báthory:The Bloodlust of a Countess in the Brothers Grimm, Le Fanu and Alejandra Pizarnik's narratives


Elizabeth Báthory, Lady of Cachtice
Countess Elizabeth Báthory was born in the Kingdom of Hungary, Habsburgh Monarchy, in 1560. She was a member of the Báthorys, one of the most powerful dinasties in the region. She was the niece of Stephen Báthory, the king of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania as well as prince of Transylvania. Despite this aristocratic background and wealth, the clan was feared for its cruelty, and some of Elizabeth’s relatives created a dark legend around their figures. For instance, Lady Klára Báthory, Elizabeth’s aunt on her father’s side, ‘‘has been remembered in the histories as an insatiable bisexual adventuress’’ (Thorne 147), and the person who may have introduced Elizabeth into sadomasochism. When Klára was caught red-handed with one of her lovers, legend has it that ‘‘Klára’s punishment was to be raped by every member of the Turkish garrison in turn’’ (Thorne 147). Therefore, the brutal violence of the age did not soften the Countess’s future cruel behaviour which this post will examine. Another grim tale narrates how Elizabeth’s brother, Stephen, was thought to be an alcoholic, a lecher and a lunatic (Thorne 149).

Mental disorders in the family may be the result of the inbreeding among the kin, since they did not wish their blood to be fused with that of others. Elizabeth is thought to have suffered from epilepsy and to have been deranged. As the Countess is the most notoriously remembered of the Báthorys, this blog post will analyse her figure from a vampiric perspective. This general approximation to her persona focuses on the belief that she murdered more than 650 young girls. The reason allegedly given as justification for her atrocious crimes  was to obtain blood from the virgins in order to restore her youthfulness. She was condemned for her crimes and imprisoned in her own castle, where she died in 1614. Her character has inspired many varied narratives, yet my text will focus on three literary sources which will help to study the Countess from a Jungian viewpoint: the stepmother of Brother Grimm’s ‘‘Little Snow White’’ (first published in 1812), the vampire Carmilla in Sheridan Le Fanu’s eponymous novella (1871-1872), and Argentinian poetess Alejandra Pizarnik’s La Condesa Sangrienta (The Bloody Countess) (1965). 
 
Elizabeth in the Bloodthirsty Stepmother of ‘‘Little Snow White’’

In the famous fairytale of ‘‘Little Snow White’’, the Grimm Brothers depict the consequences extreme vanity can trigger. Both the stepmother as well as Snow White emphasise the relevance of being young and beautiful. Vanity is a trait present in Countess Báthory, and this first section of the blog post will explore the existing connection between the tale and the aristocrat’s life.

Illustration of Snow White's stepmother by P.J.Lynch
The stepmother embodies jealousy and envy towards the young girl for her beauty. With her continuous demanding ‘‘Mirror, mirror on the wall, who in this land is fairest of all?’’ (Jacob and Wilhem Grimm) and her contempt towards the young princess, the adult woman personifies what, according to Jung’s theory, is named the ‘‘Shadow’’. Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst Carl Jung considered that humans share a ‘‘collective unconscious’’ in which instincts and archetypes are common to different cultures. Thus, concepts such as hell appear in distinct traditions. Jung’s archetype of the ‘‘Shadow’’ stands for the ‘‘dark side’’ of a person, the unconscious negative aspects of the self. Jungian expert June Singer differentiates between the ‘‘Great Mother’’ of the Ego from the ‘‘Terrible Mother’’ in the ‘‘Shadow’’.

 Consequently, Grimm’s stepmother embodies the evil side of motherhood attempting to control the virtuous Snow White. Elizabeth Báthory is also associated with vanity and mirrors. During the trial against the Countess which Palatine of Hungary George Thurzó arranged, Ficzkó, one of her loyal assistants, described his mistress ‘‘as using her mirror to ‘beseech’ – to call up spirits , cast spells or ask for supernatural help, and gives details of the ritual preparation of the deadly cake, although he does not explain how Elisabeth could have sent it to the intended victims or persuaded them to eat it’’ (Thorne 44). If we consider the stepmother summoning the spirit of the looking glass to verify who the most beautiful female is, and how she employs an apple to lure her victim and destroy her, a parallel between the stepmother and the Countess is clearly drawn.

Furthermore, Shuli Barzilai explains how professors Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar argue that both characters in the fairy tale represent ‘‘dissociated parts of one psyche. In terms of the Jungian symbology suggested by their analysis, Snow White and the queen constitute a house divided against itself: ‘‘Shadow fights shadow, image destroys image in the crystal prison, as if the ‘fiend’…should plot to destroy the ‘angel’ who is another one of her selves’’’’ (Barzilai 520). In the Countess’s case, her basement at her Čachtice castle is unmistakably her space of action. Her prey were mutilated, tortured and drained of their blood in this location with the aid of her servants. On the one hand, she may have chosen her basement to torture her victims as a means to hide her misdeeds; on the other hand it is significant that an underground room corresponds to her ‘‘underworld’’, a journey into her excessive subconscious. Elizabeth, aided by her servants, was able to mistreat the girls she wished to since she was isolated in her castle too. She lured them to her fortress as ‘‘it was a great honour for a girl to be given a position in her (Elizabeth’s) household, even that of a humble seamstress or chambermaid, and all her servants had come recommended for a particular skill’’ (Thorne 31). However, the rumours of her cruelty spread and ‘‘poor families around Čachtice hid their daughters when they heard that the Lady was approaching’’ (Thorne 31).                          
Carlos Schwabe's illustration for Charles Baudelaire's Les Fleurs du Mal, 1900
In time, the Countess became bolder, and she began to attack noblewomen, which led her to her final destruction. Married to Count Francis Nádasdy at the age of 15, her husband left for the war and was hardly ever with his family. Therefore, Elizabeth was unreservedly in charge of their state, which she managed perfectly. This function was mainly undertaken by men at her time. Notably, in the Grimm’s tale Snow White’s father is mainly absent; he only appears at the beginning of the story, when his wife dies and a year later he takes a new wife. Therefore, the non-appearance of the father figure to protect Snow White facilitates her stepmother’s assault. 

Nonetheless, it is remarkable that in the first versions of the tale, it is the real mother and not Snow White’s stepmother who aims to eliminate her. ‘‘Only with the nineteenth-century German reworking and editing of the tale was the mother definitely recast as a stepmother’’ (Barzilai 526). This means that the stepmother is seen as an Other inside the family circle. ‘‘The stepmother represents feared social forces that threaten to destabilize imaginary family and national bonds established through an ideology of biological sameness’’ (Hewitt-White 121). It is due to the Christian values of their time, that the Grimm brothers recognise virtue as inherent in natural lineage. Elizabeth was not the mother of the youngsters she murdered, yet ‘‘she was related by blood or marriage to nearly all the victims named in the testimonies’’ (Thorne 31). Therefore, the idea of evil inside the family bond emerges in the Countess’s massacres. 

Some authors do not only describe this link of ‘‘blood’’ as a means to illustrate anxieties between mother/stepmother and daughter; they also perceive ‘‘considerable kinship with vampire lore, including that of Elizabeth Báthory’’(Kord 76). Furthermore, the Grimms had written a fragment named ‘‘Nach Einem Wiener Fliegende Blatt’’, ‘‘a play on words which can mean ‘‘a Flying Leaf’’, ‘‘a Handbill’’ or ‘‘a Rumour on the Wind…from Vienna’’, with which ‘‘the Brothers Grimm referred to a seventeenth-century folktale telling of an unnamed Hungarian lady who murdered eight to twelve maidens’’ (Thorne 205).  Certain scholars consider Snow White to be the vampire since she is ‘‘as white as snow, as red as blood, and as black as ebony wood’’ (Grimm) as well as her condition of sleeping in a coffin and not aging, yet the figure of the wicked queen can also evoke vampirism. Various versions of the tale emerge in different cultures previous to the famous adaptation by the Grimms, and they depict ferocious actions. When the stepmother orders the hunter to slaughter the princess, the reworkings of the story become gory: Whilst in the Grimm’s edition the hunter must bring Snow White’s lungs and liver to the stepmother, ‘‘in Spain, the queen is even more bloodthirsty, asking for a bottle of blood, with the girl’s toe used as a cork. In Italy, the cruel queen instructs the huntsman to return with the girl’s intestines and her blood-soaked shirt’’ (Tatar). These signs of cruelty also occur in Báthory’s cannibalism, as narrated by Ponikenus, a reverend known to Elizabeth: ‘‘We heard from those maids who are still living that they were forced to eat their own flesh, which was fried on an open fire. The flesh of other maids was chopped and mashed, as with mushrooms in the preparation of a meal’’(Thorne 73). 

Nevertheless, torture was not the only treatment the Countess meted out to her young victims. She is famous for her bisexual affairs and the following section of the blog will focus on Elizabeth’s sexuality and how it may have influenced one the most relevant novellas in Gothic fiction: Sheridan Le Fanu’s ‘‘Carmilla’’.

Carmilla as an embodiment of Elizabeth

In 1872 Irish Gothic writer Sheridan Le Fanu published his story ‘‘Carmilla’’ in a serial titled The Dark Blue. The tale is narrated by Laura, a young motherless girl who lives in isolation in a castle in Styria with her father, some governesses, and some servants. The girl is disappointed when an expected visit by her father’s friend General Spielsdorf and his niece is postponed. The General, whose intention was to stay with the family, explains to Laura’s father that his young relative had suddenly become ill and died. Therefore, Laura’s wish to gain a friend is thwarted. Nevertheless, an accident occurs, and a youngster enters their lives: the apparently naïve Carmilla, who in truth is a vampire. Carmilla lures Laura to her by means of her beauty: ‘‘Her complexion was rich and brilliant; her features were small and beautifully formed; her eyes, large, dark and lustrous; her hair was quite wonderful’’ (Le Fanu 26). Le Fanu’s choice of setting of his novella as well as the accentuated allure of his predator echo Báthory’s persona, although the Countess is not presented as an innocent creature, but as a seductress whose aim is to murder. R. A. von Elsberg is the first author to describe Elizabeth’s appearance in his 1894 Die Blutgräfin when he refers to Báthory’s portrait:
‘‘She is Elisabeth Báthory, but is she at the same time the tigress? She is a lady of high rank with a cultivated mind, but her great eyes let us see deeper within to her devilish passion. Her finely chiselled nose, her wilful and obstinate lips show her siren-like personality, her wild heart…long white hands and in contrast to her white skin, her black hair: these are the features which definitely define her difficult nature’’ (Thorne 120).
Illustration for ''Carmilla'' by David Henry Friston

The eponymous Carmilla also belongs to the aristocracy, and her hidden bloodthirst emerges as the plot develops. Besides, the story relates how Carmilla and Laura belong to the same lineage. Le Fanu ‘‘makes vampirism, incest and homosexuality resonate’’ (Leal 38-39) in his tale. Whilst ‘‘several critics have noted how Carmilla is a rendition of Coleridge’s fragment ‘‘Christabel,’’ which also features a female vampire, a motherless victim, obscure familial ties, and same-sex desire’’ (Leal 39), Coleridge names one of his characters from his play Zápolya ‘‘Bethlen Báthory’’, ‘‘an amalgam of Elisabeth Báthory’s nephew Prince Gábor and his successor, Gábor Bethlen’’ (Thorne 8). Therefore, the Romantic poet may also have been aware of the figure of the Hungarian Countess and her legend.

Jung ‘‘reasons that within the collective unconscious (that part of the unconscious that is inherited and identical in all humans) of both males and females there lies an element of the opposite sex’’ (Stupaks 1). Males possess a feminine element named ‘‘anima’’ and females a masculine element called ‘‘animus’’. According to Jung, animus-inflated women tend to develop an exceptional rational instinct. Carmilla, as well as Elizabeth, represents the Jungian archetype of the fatal seductress, the Temptress; they both embody an active ‘‘shadow’’ of the personality, which needs to have power over their prey by using their physical presence until they no longer maintain any interest in their victim, who is male. Both Carmilla and Báthory are, thus, manipulative and methodical, yet the main difference is that the victims are young girls. In reality, Elizabeth’s sexual behaviour is not reported, yet, from her position of complete power after the death of her husband in 1604, she was able to obtain whatever she wanted (Thorne).

When Carmilla attacks Laura, she turns into a cat: ‘‘But I (Laura) was equally conscious of being in my room, and lying in bed, precisely as I actually was… I saw something moving round the foot of the bed, which at first I could not accurately distinguish. But I soon saw that it was a sooty-black animal that resembled a monstrous cat’’ (Le Fanu 45). Carmilla here echoes Báthory, since shapeshifting was believed to be real during the Countess’s time, and the Countess was credited with the ability to summon evil creatures in order to defeat her powerful enemies. Pastor Ponikenus, the Palatine’s ally, claimed that Elizabeth was a sorceress and noted these words as hers: ‘‘God help! God help! You little cloud! God help little cloud! God grant, God grant health to Elizabeth Báthory. Send, send me little cloud ninety cats, I command you, who are the lord of the cats… send them away to bite King Matthia’s heart, to bite my lord Palantine’s heart…’’ (Thorne 71).

Interestingly, the King owed Elizabeth money, and the Palatine Thurzó initiated the trial against her, accusing her of mass murder, witchcraft and high treason. Báthory was walled up in her castle till her death and her lineage ended once her nephew Gábor Báthory was murdered. Similarly, vampire Carmilla, whose real name is Countess Mircalla Karnstein, is finally defeated in her coffin full of blood and, consequently, her direct dinasty, although present with descendants such as Laura, becomes extinct.

The fact that Mircalla rests in her blood-filled tomb and maintains her youth resembles Widow Nadashy’s legend of her notorious gore baths: ‘‘Two old women and a certain Fitzko assisted her in her undertaking. This monster used to kill the luckless victim, and the old women caught the blood, in which Elizabeth was wont to bathe at the hour of four in the morning. After the bath she appeared more beautiful than before’’ (Sabine Baring-Gould 139-140). In reality, Báthory’s blood-bathing first appeared in Jesuit Turóczi László’s Tragica Historia in 1729. There is no mention of this practice in the trial against the aristocrat. 
Báthory depicted by Hungarian Impressionist István Csók, 1893

There are more similarities between Le Fanu’s vampire and the Countess: where Báthory is aided by her servants, Carmilla has the support of two women: the so-called Countess who introduces the vampire to her victims, and the mysterious woman of the carriage who does not get out of it (Le Fanu 18-19). This lady resembles Báthory’s confidante Anna Darvulia, ‘‘the Lady’s guide and inspiration in her torturing’’(Thorne 98), who was in charge of Elizabeth’s domestic arrangements from around 1595 and who died before the trial against the aristocrat.

The association between sorcery and vampirism is significant in Carmilla: Countess Karnstein instantly purchases ‘‘oblongs slips of vellum, with cabalistic ciphers and diagrams upon them’’ (Le Fanu 32) as an ‘‘amulet against the oupire’’ (32). Similarly, in Hungary, aristocratic women such as Elizabeth, even though they were not be sorceresses themselves, they could act as protectors of the crones known for their healing skills. Nevertheless, when one of the remedies did not work and disease spread uncontrollably, hysteria ruled and between 1529 and 1768 witchcraft trials took place in Báthory’s country. Besides, in her case, it is worthy of notice that she was a Protestant, and she created enemies with other faiths, especially Catholics. Religion also relates Carmilla’s lack of prayers to her scorn towards her labourer victims. When the funeral of a young girl occurs in front of Laura and Carmilla, the vampire claims: ‘‘She? I don’t trouble my head about peasants. I don’t know who she is…’’, and she continues… ‘‘Well, her funeral is over, I hope, and her hymn sung; and our ears shan’t be tortured with that discord and jargon’’ (Le Fanu 30-31).

Similarly, Báthory despises peasant girls to the point of torturing them to death. Or so does her notorious legend declare. Alejandra Pizarnik’s dark collection of poetic prose on the Countess describes in detail the alleged torment the Lady imposed on her prey. The last section of the blog will examine The Bloody Countess.

Elizabeth’s Torture in Alejandra Pizarnik’s La Condesa Sangrienta (The Bloody Countess)  

Alejandra Pizarnik narrates Báthory’s life in her short book The Bloody Countess. Following French surrealist author Valentine Penrose’s 1962 Erzsébet Báthory la Comtesse sanglante, the Argentinian combines poetic prose, dark fantasy and journalism to depict the legend of the notorious Countess. Pizarnik focuses on the alleged torture which the aristocrat perpetrated to obtain eternal youth through blood from the very beginning of her narrative. Pizarnik briefly analyses how Penrose describes the Countess as a ‘‘gorgeous’’ criminal : ‘‘she (Penrose) inscribes the subterranean kingdom of Elizabeth Báthory in the torture room of her medieval castle : there, the sinister beauty of the night creatures summarises itself in a silent woman of a legendary paleness, of demented eyes, of hair with the luxurious colour of the crows ’’[i] (Pizarnik). Although Báthory employed different methods of torture, such as placing girls inside a cage with spikes, or throwing frozen water at their naked bodies outdoors in winter until they died, this last section will examine Pizarnik’s allusion to the Iron Virgin.
Pizarnik begins each of her chapters with quotes which give a hint of the subject treated in her narrative. Yet there is an author whom she not only cites, but whom she also comments on at the end of her work,and mentions alongside the Baron and serial killer of children Gilles de Rais: French writer and libertine Marquis de Sade.

Sadism was named after the French author, and definitively established as a term by Freud in his 1905 Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality. For French philosopher Michel Foucault,
‘‘Sadism is not a name finally given to a practice as old as Eros; it is a massive cultural fact which appeared precisely at the end of the eighteenth century, and which constitutes one of the greatest conversions of Western imagination: unreason transformed into delirium of the heart, madness of desire, the insane dialogue of love and death in the limitless presumption of appetite’’(Foucault 199). 

Consequently, Pizarnik wisely compares the Countess to Sade and de Rais, since Báthory may have suffered from Sadistic personality disorder, as it was named in an appendix of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III-R), yet removed from later versions of the manual. The disorder involves obtaining sexual pleasure from the discomfort or pain of others (Myers 2006). 

The Argentinian author first explains the Iron Virgin: ‘There was a famous automat in Nuremberg named ‘‘the Iron Virgin’’. Countess Báthory acquired a copy for the torture room of her castle in Csejthe’’ (Pizarnik). The ‘‘Nuremberg Virgin’’, also known as ‘‘the Iron Maiden’’, ‘‘is often linked to the Middle Ages, though there is reason to believe that, in fact, it was not conceived until the end of the XVIII century’’ (Torture Museum). The most famous one is the one in Nuremberg, Germany. It consists of a womanlike sarcophagus ‘‘with a virgin Mary placed on top by the inquisitors’’ (Torture Museum) and with spikes which stab the arms, legs, stomach, eyes, shoulders and buttocks of the person placed inside. Pizarnik describes the beauty of the automat, ‘‘naked, with jewellery on, with blonde hair which reached the floor’’ [ii]and compares it to the one of the virgins: ‘‘the automat holds her (the victim) and thus nobody will be able to untie the living body from the iron one, both equal in beauty’’[iii]. Meanwhile, the aristocrat, sitting on her throne, observes (Pizarnik).
Santiago Caruso's illustration for Alejandra Pizarnik's The Bloody Countess

The use of the Iron Virgin can be associated with Irish writer Bram Stoker’s short story ‘‘The Squaw’’, first published in 1893 in the British magazine Holly Leaves the Christmas Number of the Illustrated Sporting and Dramatic News. In this tale, a couple go for their honeymoon to Germany, where they meet an American tourist, Elias P. Hutcheson. They decide to visit the Nuremberg castle together. On the way there, they see a cat with her kitten. Hutcheson decides to throw a pebble near them to see their reaction, but the stone hits the kitten’s head and kills it. Its mother enraged starts following the protagonists. Even though Amelia, the protagonist’s wife, suspects that the cat’s intention may be to kill Hutcheson if it could, the American jokes about it and narrates to them a similar situation he experienced in the USA, where an Apache woman’s child was killed by a soldier and she tortured him to death. There is a moment in the story, when the three main characters enter the Torture Tower of the castle in which an Iron Virgin is placed. The American tourist claims that he wishes to enter the automat as the people who suffered it did, and he pays the custodian some money to allow him to get inside it with his hands and feet tied. The narrator remarks how ‘‘he seemed to really enjoy it’’ (Stoker 10), and Hutcheson boasts how he ‘‘spent a night inside a dead horse’’ (Stoker 9). The cat emerges, attacks the custodian maintaining the rope of the machine, the man drops it and the American dies. Consequently, ‘‘he who killed the mother cat’s baby is killed by the mother cat when he is the baby inside of the Virgin’’ (Bierman 171). Elisabeth may have murdered more than 650 babies this way, yet none of her victims had previously harmed her.


Not only the Iron Virgin, but also the use of cats as agents of murder connect Báthory to Stoker’s story. Also, the aforementioned detail of the American sleeping inside a horse echoes the execution of a gypsy Elisabeth witnessed as a pubescent, in which ‘a horse was disembowelled and the gipsy forced into its stomach, which was then sewn up, leaving him to die slowly inside the putrefying carcass’’ (Thorne 4). There may be, thus, echoes of the Countess in this story apart from in Stoker’s Dracula (1897), a novel in which the vampire is a Count, not a Prince as Romanian Vlad III Dracula (1428/31- 1476/77) was, and he lives alone in his castle, as Báthory did. Báthory was an admirer of Vlad the Impaler’s methods of torture (Thorne), though impalement has never been mentioned as a technique of hers.
The beauty of the criminal and her machine to torture clashes with the hideousness of Báthory’s servants. Pizarnik explains how Elisabeth was helped by ‘her two old maids, both escaped from a painting by Goya: the dirty, smelly, incredibly ugly and perverse Dorkó and Jó Ilona’’[iv] (Pizarnik). Moreover, the witch Darvulia was the cruellest of them.




Goya's Pretty Teacher!, Capricho 68, 1797-1799

Goya emerges in Foucault’s theory of madness in which the abovementioned Sade is also present: ‘‘ They (the Caprichos, etchings and aquatints by the Spanish painter done in 1797 and 1798) are premissed on the describabilty of madness. Madness here is a nightmare. ’’ (Boyne 25). Foucault compares Goya’s images to Sade’s 1791 novel Justine, which narrates the harsh life of the eponymous protagonist from the age of twelve until she is twenty-six, and which emphasises sexual perversions and abuse. Boyne analyses how ‘‘Just as Goya’s Caprichos illuminate the horror of natural multiplicity, so in de Sade’s Justine we are presented with the vicissitudes of a hydra-headed desire which, after all, was given to humankind by nature itself’’ (25-26). Pizarnik agrees with this conclusion since at the end of her work, she states that ‘‘she  (Báthory) is another proof that the total freedom of the human creature is horrible’’[v] (Pizarnik). 

It is probable that we will never be able to know what really occurred at Čachtice castle due to the difficulties in finding documents, and the language barrier that emerges for most scholars, yet fiction and non-fiction continue to depict and analyse the haunting figure of the mysterious Countess. This blog has studied her presence in various narratives, beginning with the popular fairytale of ‘‘Little Snow White’’ by the Brothers Grimm,  to afterwards illustrate Sheridan Le Fanu’s vampire novella ‘‘Carmilla’’ and, finally, examine Alejandra Pizarnik’s rough text about Báthory’s torture. A Jungian approach has been introduced in the first two sections of the post to capture Elizabeth’s personality as well as why she has been so present in vampire literature.


[i] Original texts: '‘Inscribe el reino subterráneo de Elizabeth Báthory en la sala de torturas de su castillo medieval: allí, la siniestra hermosura de las criaturas nocturnas se resume en una silenciosa palidez legendaria, de ojos dementes, de cabellos del color suntuoso de los cuervos'’.

[ii]  ‘Desnuda, maquillada, enjoyada, con rubios cabellos que llegaban al suelo’’

[iii] ‘‘La autómata la abraza y ya nadie podrá desanudar el cuerpo vivo del cuerpo de hierro, ambos iguales en belleza’’.

[iv] ‘‘Sus dos viejas sirvientas, dos escapadas de alguna obra de Goya: las sucias, malolientes, increíblemente feas y perversas Dorkó y Jó Ilona''.


[v] ‘‘Ella es una prueba más de que la libertad absoluta de la criatura humana es horrible’’.


BIBLIOGRAPHY:

Baring-Gould, Sabine, The Book of Were-wolves: Being an Account of a Terrible Superstition, https://archive.org/details/bookwerewolvesb00barigoog (Accessed 10th March 2018)

Barzilai, Shuli, ‘‘Reading ‘‘Snow White’’: The Mother’s Story’’, Signs, Vol. 15, No. 3, The Ideology of Mothering: Disruption and Reproduction of Patriarchy (Spring, 1990), pp. 515-534 http://kmcglaughlinhbhsenglish.edublogs.org/files/2011/12/Reading-Snow-White-The-Mothers-Story-15w2i2c.pdf (Accessed 19th March 2018)
Biergman, Joseph. S., in Bram Stoker: History, Psychoanalysis and the Gothic, by Smith, Andrew and Hughes, William (Palgrave Macmillan, 1998)-via Google Books
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Le Fanu, Joseph Sheridan, ‘‘Carmilla’’ (Bizarro Press, 2012)

Myers, Wade C., Burket, Roger C., Husted, David S., ‘‘Sadistic Personality Disorder and Comorbid Mental Illness in Adolescent Psychiatric Inpatients’’, Journal of the American Academy pf Psychiatry and the Law Online https://archive.is/20130415045910/http://www.jaapl.org/content/34/1/61.full.pdf.html (Accessed 29th March 2018)

Pizarnik, Alejandra, La Condesa Sangrienta, http://ral-m.com/revue/IMG/pdf_Pizarnik_Alejandra_-_La_Condesa_Sangrienta.pdf (Accessed 28th March 2018)

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IMAGES:

Illustration of Snow White’s Stepmother by P.J.Lynch http://www.pjlynchgallery.com/book-illustration/mirror-mirror-on-the-wall/
Illustration by Carlos Schwabe for Baudelaire’s Les Fleurs du Mal, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Fleurs-du-mal_tonneau.jpg
Illustration from Sheridan Le Fanu’s ‘‘Carmilla’’ by D.H.Friston, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carmilla#/media/File:Carmilla.jpg